DIVISION 17 (第十七)

The best of all rulers is but a shadowy presence to his subjects.
Next comes the ruler they love and praise.
Next comes one they fear;
And then ones they despise.
If you don't stand sincere by your words
How sincere can the people be?
Hesitant, he does not utter words lightly.
When his task is accomplished and his work done,
The people all say, “It happened to us naturally.”

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The best indicator of a ruler's effectiveness is that his administration is the least noticed (and credited) by those ruled given the conditions of the day.  As a shèng rén (sage), an effective ruler uses words sparingly as they can be a source of misunderstanding (Division 2), but when he does, he uses them to gain the trust of those ruled (Division 8) and to promote social harmony.

Order is best achieved when contention is minimized among those ruled (Division 8). Division 3 specifies essential conditions for such a rule in that the people tend to be well-fed, physically strong, and are so satisfied that their ambitions don't stir social disruption. Both Divisions 3 and 13 warn rulers that their own ambitions can be a source of contention, with the latter division emphasizing that the ruler selflessly rules as a shèng rén out of love for those he governs, honoring and benefiting those ruled as they were himself.

DIVISION 15 (第十五)

Of old he who was well versed in the Dào
Were subtle, mysterious, dark, penetrating.
They were deep beyond knowing,
So deep beyond knowing,
We can only describe their appearance:
Hesitant was he! Like someone crossing a river in winter.
And perfectly watchful, as if neighbors threatened.
Reverent, like being guests.
Dissolving, like ice beginning to melt.
Perfectly simple, as if uncarved wood.
Vacant, like a valley.
Murky, like muddy water.
Who can make the muddy water clear?
Who can be at rest and yet, stirring, come to life?
Those who keep this Dào,
Do not want to be filled to the full.
Because they are not full,
That they can be worn and yet newly made.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) appears to be hesitant, perfectly watchful, reverent, dissolving, perfectly simple, vacant, and murky. The shèng rén understands the usefulness of emptiness within things (Division 11), but the Lǎo Zǐ admonishes him to not want to be "filled to the full" so as to not lose the ability to transform himself, i.e. focus qì into softness to become a newborn again (Division 10).

“Were subtle, mysterious, dark, penetrating” is the appearance of someone who believes nothing can be completely known (Division 1), distrusts words (Division 2), practices the teaching that uses no words (Division 2), refrains from making judgments (Division 7), and believes knowledge promotes social conflict (Division 3).

“Deep beyond knowing” is the depth that is the quality of mind (Division 8), and the understanding of Xuán (Division 1).

“Hesitant... Like someone crossing a river in winter” is appearing prudently cautious as one confronts a natural, known, and dangerous natural impediment on a journey. The image nearly matches the Judgment for hexagram 64 of the Yi Jīng (or I Ching) (易經), The Book of Changes, which is Wèi Jì (未濟 ), variously translated as “not yet complete” or “not yet forded"^[1], in which a young fox attempts to cross a half-frozen stream^[2]. The Yi Jīng describes the young fox as, “Thinking on with his feet, he tests the ice before he commits his weight, keeping three points on the known and one for new knowledge.”^[3]

“And perfectly watchful, as if neighbors threatened” is appearing vigilant and wary of people, associations, nations and states. This is the demeanor of the young fox described in the Wèi Jì hexagram of the Yi Jīng.

“Reverent, like being guests” is appearing humble when in the presence of others (Division 8).

“Dissolving, like ice beginning to melt” is appearing to become more and more selfless (Division 7). However, water in transforming from solid to liquid, reduces the ice and disperses drops of water to the earth. The shèng rén, like ice, a form of water which symbolizes the greatest good (Division 8), gives of himself to benefit others even though it may reduce himself in some manner as Division 42 says, “Thus, a thing is sometimes added to by being diminished and diminished by being added to.”

“Perfectly simple, as if uncarved wood” is appearing plain and unadorned (Division 19), small (Division 32), and desireless (Division 37).

“Vacant like a valley” is appearing receptive to the One, which can fill a valley (Division 39).

“Murky, like muddy water” is appearing unsure or equivocating and, consequently, not smart (Division 20). The shèng rén, of course, understands why he is murky, and so can make the muddy water clear.

"...be at rest and yet, stirring, come to life" is the appearance of someone who is always seeking fulfillment and carefully plans the steps he takes in life in order to achieve fulfillment as the young fox trying to cross the frozen stream in the Wèi Jì hexagram of the Yi Jīng.

FOOTNOTES
[1] Hatcher, Bradford, The Zhouyi and the First Four Wings of the Yijing In Simple, Literal Translation With the Rogue River Commentaries and Miscellaneous Notes, accessed April 27, 2009.

Hexagram 64:
Wèi Jì (未濟), Not Yet Complete

Fulfillment
The little fox (is) almost across the (half-frozen) stream
To soak that tail
Is not the direction of merit.

Nearly half way across the half-frozen stream, the wary, young fox is dauntless but careful. He is also not done growing older and wiser, and knows this. He continues to follow his plan. His plan, however, has already crossed, and now relaxes on that far shore in the sun. Such a plan may drown itself many times over, yet come back as lively as ever. The tangible fox is unable to do this and so he wants to keep all of his trouble in theory, and to keep his loose ends together. Thus far from safety, with just as far forward as back, he cannot afford to even dampen his tail. His nearest home or resting place may be all the way at the end. Nothing is granted but givens, as he can find and claim them. The sequences are uncertain, the problems are unknown. And yet he wants certain, not probably, outcomes. Thankfully, only three out of four feet really need to be sure. Thinking on with his feet, he tests the ice before he commits his weight, keeping three points on the known and one for new knowledge. Almost all the tension and stresses increase his chance for success. Thoughts of ice cold water, thoughts of the warm sunny shore: a tension pulls on to the other.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

DIVISION 13 (第十三)

Favor and disgrace would seem equally to be feared.
High rank is, like one's body, a source of great trouble.
What is meant by speaking thus of fear and disgrace?
Favor is inferior.
If you get it – be alarmed!
If you lose it – be alarmed!
Honor always dwindles away, so earning it fills us
with fear, and losing it fills us with fear.
This is what is meant by saying, "Favor and disgrace would seem to be equally feared."
What is meant by “high rank is, like one's body, a source of great trouble”?
The reason why I have great trouble is that I have a body.
When I no longer have a body, what trouble have I?
Therefore, he who would administer the Kingdom, honoring it as he honors his own person, may be employed to govern it.
And he who would administer it with the love which he bears his own person may be entrusted with it.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) is admonished to fear the receipt of honors as equally as to be disgraced. The consequence of this for the shèng rén who rules is that he administers the government with the care and respect that he would treat himself, and that he must love the governed as he would his own person.

In Division 2, the Lǎo Zǐ tells the shèng rén to not seek rewards. Division 13 goes further in warning him that receiving honors should be feared because honors are eventually lost.

Here, as a continuation of Division 3, the Lǎo Zǐ warns that administering the government is difficult, as it is “a great source of trouble” like one's own body. Since the shèng rén is not to take high rank in the government for its rewards like honors or favors, he must take the position to benefit the people (Division 8) with peace and order (Division 3), helping them to become physically strong (Division 3), long-lived (Division 7), and enlightened (Division 3 and 27).

DIVISION 12 (第十二)

The five colors blind a person's eyes.
The five musical notes deafen a person's ears.
The five tastes injure the palate.
Horse racing, hunting, and chasing
Makes a mind go wild with excitement.
Goods hard to come by
Serve to hinder (one's) progress.
That is why the shèng rén tends to the belly, not the eye,
Always ignores that and choses this.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) is admonished to tend to his physical needs and avoid sensual pleasures and luxuries.

The Lǎo Zǐ warns that constant exposure to pleasurable sights, sounds, tastes, exciting experiences, and luxuries can make a person less sensitive or aware of what is happening around him – causes for kinds of blindness, deafness, tastelessness, confusion, or plain senselessness. As mentioned in the commentary in Division 10, the Sù Wèn described these kinds of losses in awareness as a kind of sleep. The admonishment may be motivated by the need for people to be sensitive and vigilant to detect changes that will help them avoid future troubles (Division 63), and to enable them to attain a state of quietude necessary to achieve enlightenment (Division 16).

DIVISION 7 (第七)

Heaven goes on forever,
And Earth endures long.
The reason why Heaven and Earth are long-lasting
Is that they do not live for themselves.
Therefore, they can long endure.
Hence, in putting himself last, the shèng rén puts himself first.
He treats his person as if it was foreign to him,
And yet that person is preserved.
Is it not because he is selfless
That he can fulfill the self?

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) is selfless, a selflessness that emulates that of Heaven and Earth, which means treating himself with detachment and impartiality (as prescribed in Division 5), and being desireless.

With regards to being first or last, the shèng rén doesn't order the importance of things that include himself, so his lack of desire might appear to set himself in the last place in the eyes of others but can also appear to set himself in the first place in terms of following the Dào. Any ordering, however, is an illusionary judgment like beauty and goodness (Division 2).

Furthermore, by being desireless, the shèng rén is able to live long like Heaven and Earth; and by being detached and impartial with respect to himself he is enabled see how his own Xuán is expressed (Division 1) and attain fulfillment (Division 16).

DIVISION 5 (第五)

Heaven and Earth are not humane (bù rén),
They regard the myriad things as straw dogs.
The shèng rén is not humane (bù rén).
He regards the common people as straw dogs.

May not the space between Heaven and Earth be compared to a bellows?
Empty yet inexhaustible.
Moving and yet it pours out ever more.
By many words one's reckoning is exhausted.
It is better to abide by the center.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage), like both Heaven and Earth, regards everything, even people, with detachment and impartiality. As a consequence, humanity has no special place in creation. However, by being impartial a person can come to be like Heaven (Division 16). Without divine guidance people must find their own ways through life.

The atmosphere with its dynamic and ever-changing wind and climate, being empty and inexhaustible (Division 4), is described as the Dào. The Dào interacts with the Earth and Heaven creating the wind like a bellows that seemingly drives the ever-changing climate and brings the seasons.

Words cannot describe the endlessly, ever-changing climate, so readers are admonished to abide by the center where they can find tranquility (Division 16).

Straw dogs were representations of dogs used in rituals. They were revered, then burned in sacrifices and discarded as ordinary refuse^[1]. The myriad of things are separate from Heaven and Earth. Living things, in particular, arise and make something out of their efforts (Division 2). They seem to be hosted by Heaven and Earth as they transform, but neither Heaven nor Earth have any compassion for them. Furthermore, neither Heaven nor Earth are expected to respond to human efforts to communicate with them, as the Lǎo Zǐ contains no passages about making prayers or offerings to spirits, gods, or the Dào for the benefit of people.

The line about the shèng rén being bù rén (不仁) towards people has been variously translated as direction to be “ruthless”, “inhumane”, and “impartial.” Clearly, the Lǎo Zǐ doesn't advocate that the shèng rén treat people like straw dogs. Furthermore, the Lǎo Zǐ doesn't characterize the shèng rén as someone who should care nothing about the common people. If not, why teach them (Divisions 2 and 3), or even govern them (Division 3)? Divisions 10 and 13 identify the love of rulers have for their people as a virtue. Division 49 says one should be good to both good people and not good people.

These apparent paradoxes are resolved when rén (仁) is specifically interpreted as the Confucian ideal that is often translated as benevolence or humanity. The concept that rén is a relationship of benevolence between any people was an invention of Confucianism in the Lún​ Yǔ​ (Analects)^[2]. Prior to the Lún​ Yǔ​ rén referred to a ruler's benevolent regard toward his subjects or a "manly or virile quality"^[3]. Simple translation distorts by oversimplifying, as Confucian rén constitutes more than just demonstrating benevolence and kindness, for the Confucians require the individual to acquire the kind of practical wisdom (zhi)^[4] the Lǎo Zǐ aims to suppress in Division 3, and conformance with elaborate sets of rites (lǐ) that were "a body of rules governing action in every aspect of life"^[5]. The all-consuming prescriptions for the individual in the Lún​ Yǔ​ are very clear:

" Yen Yuän asked about rén. The Master said, 'To return to the observance of the rites through overcoming the self constitutes rén. If for a single day a man could return to the observance of the rites through overcoming himself, then the whole Empire would consider rén to be his. However, the practice of rén depends on oneself alone, and not on others.'

" Yen Yuän said, 'I should like you to list the items.'

" The Master said, 'Do not look unless it is in accordance with the rites; do not listen unless it is in accordance with the rites; do not speak unless it is in accordance with the rites; do not move unless it is in accordance with the rites.'

" Yen Yuän said, 'Though I am not quick, I shall direct my efforts towards what you said.'" (Analects, XII.1)^[6]

In the overall context of Confucian practices, the Lǎo Zǐ has little regard for rén when the Lǎo Zǐ's Dào is followed. (See Divisions 18, 19, and 38.) In particular, Chen describes Division 38 as an "anti-Confucian polemic"^[7].

In such a case, the shèng rén doesn't practice Confucian rén and so, the shèng rén treats people as just another thing that is a part of creation which is another focus of disputes between Lǎo Zǐ and Confucian schools.

As mentioned earlier, the Lǎo Zǐ's position is that Heaven and Earth are impartial towards people. However, the Confucians claimed Confucius acquired their moral and ethical system directly from Heaven.

"The Master said, 'At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At fifty, I know the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow what my heart desires, without transgressing what was right.'" (Analects, II.4)^[8]

It is no wonder the Lǎo Zǐ appears to be so defensive since the Confucians so easily questioned the legitimacy of their Dào.

The wind, as a phenomenon, is an example of an indifferent, impartial, inexhaustible force that operates in a void. This description of the wind compares to the description of the Dào in Division 4, thus adding indifference and impartiality towards all things as attributes of the Dào.

Finally, like the force of the wind, creation itself is characterized as vast and overwhelming (see Division 12). Language alone is inadequate to gain an understanding of it (Division 2), so it is better to use one's full faculties, including the capacity to use words, to comprehend the world through one's center (zhōng 中) as articulated elsewhere in the Lǎo Zǐ (see Divisions 16 and 47).

FOOTNOTES
[1] Lao-Tze, The Canon of Reason and Virtue, Translated by D.T. Suzuki and Paul Carus, Open Court, LaSalle, IL, 1913, p.137.

[2] Lai, Karyn, Learning from Chinese Philosophies: Ethics of Interdependent and Contextualised Self, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd, Farnham, Surrey, UK, 2006, p.15.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Lau, D.C., Confucius: The Analects -- Translated with Introduction, Doreset Press, NY, 1979, p.20.

[6] Ibid, p.112.

[7] Chen, Ellen M., Tao Te Ching: A New Translation with Commentary, Paragon House Publishing, St. Paul, MN, 1989, p.146.

[8] Lau, D.C., Confucius: The Analects -- Translated with Introduction, Doreset Press, NY, 1979, p.63.

DIVISION 3 (第三)

Do not honor the worthy
So that the people will not contend with one another.
Never prize rare treasures and people will not steal.
Never flaunt alluring things and the people won't be confused.

Therefore, in the government of the shèng rén:
He empties the minds of his people
And fills their bellies;
Weakens their ambition
And strengthens their bones.
He constantly keeps them without knowledge (zhī 知) and without desire,
Then those who know (zhì 智) are those who never presume to act.
Act by wú wèi
Then nothing is not in order.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
Division 3 is a summary prescription of the shèng rén's (sage's) approach to governance, which primarily consists of working to minimize people's ambitions and desires, and ensuring they are well-fed and physically strong. In admonishing the shèng rén that governs to empty people's minds, Lǎo Zǐ obligates him to teach the people how to obtain enlightenment. By doing so, the nation will be orderly.

The nature of people is to compete for honors (also see Division 13), to covet rare things of value, and to react to those putting on alluring displays. Respectively, these behaviors promote disorder by risking disputes, cheating, and strife; theft; and disturbances caused by misunderstanding of motives. Thus, the Lǎo Zǐ's dào is to not bestow any honors, prize rare things, or put on displays that incite desire.

Two central ideas not mentioned in this division are essential for understanding the Lǎo Zǐ's positions on good government. First, the objective of good government is to benefit the people by maintaining order (see Division 8). The second, articulated in Division 65, is that governing is hard because ordinary people are too knowledgeable, presumably, clever in seeking ways to fulfill the ambitions and desires that contribute to social disorder.

Furthermore, by admonishing the shèng rén to "Act by wú wèi" (or maybe more clearly, “Act without acting”), the shèng rén needs to be so skilled at governing that the act of governing is effortless. This would seem to rule out the use of force, as the Lǎo Zǐ articulates in Divisions 30 and 36. Given all these constraints, the Lǎo Zǐ's prescription to the shèng rén is to create and maintain a social order with the features described in this division below.

The shèng rén ensures that his people are well-fed and physically strong. He works to moderate their ambitions, and prevents them from becoming mischievous and desirous.

The shèng rén “empties minds,” which has two meanings that emanate from the use of two different words for knowledge – zhī (知) and zhì (智) that both appear concurrently in this division and Division 33, the latter noted by Chen^[1]. The etymology of zhī (知) is to be wise in speech^[2], i.e. it is the display of wisdom through the use of words. As zhī knowledge depends on words it is inherently distorted and untrustworthy (Divisions 1 and 2). The shèng rén is admonished in Division 2 to practice the teaching that uses no words, and so seeks to instill knowledge through other means. However, the ideograph zhì (智) is zhī (知) with the symbol of the sun (日 rì) under it^[3]. In this division, zhì (智) is the most legitimate form of knowledge recognized in the Lǎo Zǐ, which is the understanding of cháng (常), because when one understands cháng one becomes enlightened (Division 16). In particular, in order to understand cháng (常) one must empty one's mind (Division 16).

Finally, Division 27 says the shèng rén excels at saving people. Achieving enlightenment is the most important aspect of salvation in the Lǎo Zǐ. In saying the shèng rén who governs empties people's minds, the Lǎo Zǐ implicitly directs him to help his people attain enlightenment. Such efforts promote happiness and good social order since the enlightened don't act. The directions also implicitly make the shèng rén who governs an advocate and teacher of the Lǎo Zǐ's Dào.

FOOTNOTES
[1] Chen, Ellen M., The Tao Te Ching: A New Translation with Commentary, Paragon House, St. Paul, MN, 1989, p.136.

[2] Sears, Richard, "知 (zhī)", Chinese Etymology. Accessed September 7, 2009.

[3] Sears, Richard, "智 (zhī)", Chinese Etymology. Accessed September 7, 2009.

DIVISION 2 (第二)

All beneath heaven knows beauty is beauty only because there is ugliness,
And knows good is good only because there is evil.
Thus, Something and Nothing produce each other.
Difficult and easy complete each other.
Long and short measure one another.
High and low fill one another.
Voices and instruments harmonize with one another.
Front and back follow each other.

Therefore, the shèng rén keeps to the deed that consists of taking wú wèi and practices the teaching that uses no words.
Ten thousands things arise and he does not initiate them.
They come to be and he claims no possession of them.
They go through their processes, and there is no expectation (for reward for the results).
He accomplishes his tasks, but does not dwell on them.
It is only because he does not dwell on them
That they do not leave him.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) refrains from making judgments using words (see also Division 5). The human mind can comprehend long and short as being the comparison of objects in length. However, the mind cannot comprehend the root aspects of beauty and ugliness, or good and evil. So, once one's mind judges something to be ugly (or evil) then beauty (or good) is defined whether or not others share the same judgments. Ambiguity, inconsistency, and misunderstanding can lead to misjudgment, so all judgments should be distrusted. The Lǎo Zǐ admonishes the shèng rén "to practice the teaching that uses no words" – an approach to learning about a world without beauty, ugliness, goodness, evil, long or short. And, as a further consequence, the shèng rén is also admonished to emulate the wordless way of things in nature in which tasks are accomplished for there own sake, not for rewards.

Beauty and ugliness, and good and evil are judgments. But, can beauty be real if it only exists because of ugliness? And, can goodness be real if it only exists because of evil? We do know this, that things that people regard as beautiful, ugly, good, and evil are replete in nature, yet things in nature are not guided by people's judgments as to their beauty, ugliness, goodness, or evilness. Thus, those words are not relevant to anything but people.

However, it doesn't seem that all opposites are simply judgments created only by the human mind, as some opposites exist apart from human experience:

Something and Nothing. The British philosopher, Alan Watts (1915-1973) said, "You can't have something without nothing"^[1]. Watts observed that physical things must be separated by nothingness otherwise they would not be the distinct things they are. His conclusion that things can't physically exist without the nothingness that separates them enables us to say that nothing exists as we say something exists, which is the basis for the Lǎo Zǐ expression here that "Something and Nothing produce each other".

Long and short. The existence of physical objects means that they have dimensions, so the long and short exist because things can be measured.

The other pairs of opposites are the product of judgments. Tasks are difficult or easy in different ways, say in how long a task takes or how many errors are made while completing it. The combination of voices and instruments may be perceived as pleasant or in discord. What is high and what is low depends on the observer's elevation. The front and back of a physical object depends on the location of the observer.

Overall, understanding of any thing can be wrong because perception is a combination of observation and judgment. Even worse, words (names) are particularly poor for understanding any thing (Division 1). So, the shèng rén distrusts words and practices ways that avoid using them. The practice enables the shèng rén to view everything impartially which he is admonished to do in Division 5.

As for things in nature, they arise, grow, and transform on their own accord without any desire to achieve rewards. In doing so, things in nature appear to accomplish things for their own sake. So, the shèng rén emulates natural things, accomplishing tasks for his own sake, and in doing so, acts without acting (wú wèi).

FOOTNOTES
[1] Alan Watts: An Interactive Experience of the Story and Life Works of Alan Watts". Accessed March 30, 2009. The Watts' lecture is available for viewing on YouTube.