DIVISION 18 (第十八)

Therefore, when the great Dào is rejected
It is then we have the virtues of rén and yì.
When clever wisdom appears
We are faced with duplicity.
When the six relations^[1] are not in harmony
It is then we have xiào and cí.
When a nation is in darkness and disorder,
There are loyal ministers.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
Division 18 initiates the Lǎo Zǐ's disputation of Confucianism. In Division 18, the Lǎo Zǐ says that when the Dào is supplanted by the human invention of virtue, disharmony will be inherent in human affairs. Without the Dào, Confucian virtues depend on words and judgments that can be undermined by "clever wisdom" (Division 2). Xiào (filial piety 孝) and cí (parental love 慈) rely on the domination of parents to teach children obedience and respect that is contrary to Xuán Dé (Division 10). Xiào, in particular, requires subjects' obedience and respect for their ruler that, if not sustained, requires loyal ministers to maintain order.

The Daoist social harmony is constructed in a manner where the people feel it came about “naturally” (Division 17) and maintained without effort (Divisions 3 and 38). However, when the Dào is rejected or abandoned, effort is required to maintain order, and so people are called upon to pursue the Confucian ideals of rén (benevolence 仁) and  to take actions that are deemed morally right (yì  -- righteousness 義). When the Dào is not followed, people must invent ways to maintain harmonious order. One approach is to base social order on ideals of virtue. Virtue, being a human invention, requires words to characterize it, and in doing so, invites judgments and misunderstanding (Division 2 and 5).  During the writing of the Lǎo Zǐ, virtue was idealized by Confucianism and incorporated in an ethical system, which included the ideals of rén (仁) and yì (righteousness 義), and xiào and cí.

As a Confucian virtue, D.C. Lau describes rén as “the most important moral quality a man can possess”^[2]. However, Daoists find Confucian rén repugnant because it requires strict conformity to numerous, pervasive, and elaborate Confucian rites (lǐ 禮) in order to achieve it.  The required conformity lies at the heart of the Lún Yǔ (The Analects), one of the central texts of Confucianism:

 “Yen Yuän asked about rén. The Master said, 'To return to the observance of the rites through overcoming the self constitutes rén. If for a single day a man could return to the observance of the rites through overcoming himself, then the whole Empire would consider rén to be his. However, the practice of rén depends on oneself alone, and not on others.'” (Lún Yǔ, 12.1)^[3]

FOOTNOTES:
[1]  Ellen M. Chen identifies the "six relations" from the Lüshi chunqiu (呂氏春秋) attributed to Zhong Hui (225-264 C.E.), as "radiating from the individual are: father, mother, elder brother, younger brother, wife, and son."  (p.100).

[2] The Analects, Confucius, translated with introduction by D. C. Lau, Dorset Press, New York, 1979, p.14.

[3] Ibid., p.112.

REFERENCES:
"Confucius (c.551-479 BCE)",, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, James Fieder and Bradley Dowden, general editors.

“Confucius”, Stanford University Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

DIVISION 17 (第十七)

The best of all rulers is but a shadowy presence to his subjects.
Next comes the ruler they love and praise.
Next comes one they fear;
And then ones they despise.
If you don't stand sincere by your words
How sincere can the people be?
Hesitant, he does not utter words lightly.
When his task is accomplished and his work done,
The people all say, “It happened to us naturally.”

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The best indicator of a ruler's effectiveness is that his administration is the least noticed (and credited) by those ruled given the conditions of the day.  As a shèng rén (sage), an effective ruler uses words sparingly as they can be a source of misunderstanding (Division 2), but when he does, he uses them to gain the trust of those ruled (Division 8) and to promote social harmony.

Order is best achieved when contention is minimized among those ruled (Division 8). Division 3 specifies essential conditions for such a rule in that the people tend to be well-fed, physically strong, and are so satisfied that their ambitions don't stir social disruption. Both Divisions 3 and 13 warn rulers that their own ambitions can be a source of contention, with the latter division emphasizing that the ruler selflessly rules as a shèng rén out of love for those he governs, honoring and benefiting those ruled as they were himself.

DIVISION 15 (第十五)

Of old he who was well versed in the Dào
Were subtle, mysterious, dark, penetrating.
They were deep beyond knowing,
So deep beyond knowing,
We can only describe their appearance:
Hesitant was he! Like someone crossing a river in winter.
And perfectly watchful, as if neighbors threatened.
Reverent, like being guests.
Dissolving, like ice beginning to melt.
Perfectly simple, as if uncarved wood.
Vacant, like a valley.
Murky, like muddy water.
Who can make the muddy water clear?
Who can be at rest and yet, stirring, come to life?
Those who keep this Dào,
Do not want to be filled to the full.
Because they are not full,
That they can be worn and yet newly made.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) appears to be hesitant, perfectly watchful, reverent, dissolving, perfectly simple, vacant, and murky. The shèng rén understands the usefulness of emptiness within things (Division 11), but the Lǎo Zǐ admonishes him to not want to be "filled to the full" so as to not lose the ability to transform himself, i.e. focus qì into softness to become a newborn again (Division 10).

“Were subtle, mysterious, dark, penetrating” is the appearance of someone who believes nothing can be completely known (Division 1), distrusts words (Division 2), practices the teaching that uses no words (Division 2), refrains from making judgments (Division 7), and believes knowledge promotes social conflict (Division 3).

“Deep beyond knowing” is the depth that is the quality of mind (Division 8), and the understanding of Xuán (Division 1).

“Hesitant... Like someone crossing a river in winter” is appearing prudently cautious as one confronts a natural, known, and dangerous natural impediment on a journey. The image nearly matches the Judgment for hexagram 64 of the Yi Jīng (or I Ching) (易經), The Book of Changes, which is Wèi Jì (未濟 ), variously translated as “not yet complete” or “not yet forded"^[1], in which a young fox attempts to cross a half-frozen stream^[2]. The Yi Jīng describes the young fox as, “Thinking on with his feet, he tests the ice before he commits his weight, keeping three points on the known and one for new knowledge.”^[3]

“And perfectly watchful, as if neighbors threatened” is appearing vigilant and wary of people, associations, nations and states. This is the demeanor of the young fox described in the Wèi Jì hexagram of the Yi Jīng.

“Reverent, like being guests” is appearing humble when in the presence of others (Division 8).

“Dissolving, like ice beginning to melt” is appearing to become more and more selfless (Division 7). However, water in transforming from solid to liquid, reduces the ice and disperses drops of water to the earth. The shèng rén, like ice, a form of water which symbolizes the greatest good (Division 8), gives of himself to benefit others even though it may reduce himself in some manner as Division 42 says, “Thus, a thing is sometimes added to by being diminished and diminished by being added to.”

“Perfectly simple, as if uncarved wood” is appearing plain and unadorned (Division 19), small (Division 32), and desireless (Division 37).

“Vacant like a valley” is appearing receptive to the One, which can fill a valley (Division 39).

“Murky, like muddy water” is appearing unsure or equivocating and, consequently, not smart (Division 20). The shèng rén, of course, understands why he is murky, and so can make the muddy water clear.

"...be at rest and yet, stirring, come to life" is the appearance of someone who is always seeking fulfillment and carefully plans the steps he takes in life in order to achieve fulfillment as the young fox trying to cross the frozen stream in the Wèi Jì hexagram of the Yi Jīng.

FOOTNOTES
[1] Hatcher, Bradford, The Zhouyi and the First Four Wings of the Yijing In Simple, Literal Translation With the Rogue River Commentaries and Miscellaneous Notes, accessed April 27, 2009.

Hexagram 64:
Wèi Jì (未濟), Not Yet Complete

Fulfillment
The little fox (is) almost across the (half-frozen) stream
To soak that tail
Is not the direction of merit.

Nearly half way across the half-frozen stream, the wary, young fox is dauntless but careful. He is also not done growing older and wiser, and knows this. He continues to follow his plan. His plan, however, has already crossed, and now relaxes on that far shore in the sun. Such a plan may drown itself many times over, yet come back as lively as ever. The tangible fox is unable to do this and so he wants to keep all of his trouble in theory, and to keep his loose ends together. Thus far from safety, with just as far forward as back, he cannot afford to even dampen his tail. His nearest home or resting place may be all the way at the end. Nothing is granted but givens, as he can find and claim them. The sequences are uncertain, the problems are unknown. And yet he wants certain, not probably, outcomes. Thankfully, only three out of four feet really need to be sure. Thinking on with his feet, he tests the ice before he commits his weight, keeping three points on the known and one for new knowledge. Almost all the tension and stresses increase his chance for success. Thoughts of ice cold water, thoughts of the warm sunny shore: a tension pulls on to the other.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Ibid.

DIVISION 13 (第十三)

Favor and disgrace would seem equally to be feared.
High rank is, like one's body, a source of great trouble.
What is meant by speaking thus of fear and disgrace?
Favor is inferior.
If you get it – be alarmed!
If you lose it – be alarmed!
Honor always dwindles away, so earning it fills us
with fear, and losing it fills us with fear.
This is what is meant by saying, "Favor and disgrace would seem to be equally feared."
What is meant by “high rank is, like one's body, a source of great trouble”?
The reason why I have great trouble is that I have a body.
When I no longer have a body, what trouble have I?
Therefore, he who would administer the Kingdom, honoring it as he honors his own person, may be employed to govern it.
And he who would administer it with the love which he bears his own person may be entrusted with it.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) is admonished to fear the receipt of honors as equally as to be disgraced. The consequence of this for the shèng rén who rules is that he administers the government with the care and respect that he would treat himself, and that he must love the governed as he would his own person.

In Division 2, the Lǎo Zǐ tells the shèng rén to not seek rewards. Division 13 goes further in warning him that receiving honors should be feared because honors are eventually lost.

Here, as a continuation of Division 3, the Lǎo Zǐ warns that administering the government is difficult, as it is “a great source of trouble” like one's own body. Since the shèng rén is not to take high rank in the government for its rewards like honors or favors, he must take the position to benefit the people (Division 8) with peace and order (Division 3), helping them to become physically strong (Division 3), long-lived (Division 7), and enlightened (Division 3 and 27).

DIVISION 7 (第七)

Heaven goes on forever,
And Earth endures long.
The reason why Heaven and Earth are long-lasting
Is that they do not live for themselves.
Therefore, they can long endure.
Hence, in putting himself last, the shèng rén puts himself first.
He treats his person as if it was foreign to him,
And yet that person is preserved.
Is it not because he is selfless
That he can fulfill the self?

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) is selfless, a selflessness that emulates that of Heaven and Earth, which means treating himself with detachment and impartiality (as prescribed in Division 5), and being desireless.

With regards to being first or last, the shèng rén doesn't order the importance of things that include himself, so his lack of desire might appear to set himself in the last place in the eyes of others but can also appear to set himself in the first place in terms of following the Dào. Any ordering, however, is an illusionary judgment like beauty and goodness (Division 2).

Furthermore, by being desireless, the shèng rén is able to live long like Heaven and Earth; and by being detached and impartial with respect to himself he is enabled see how his own Xuán is expressed (Division 1) and attain fulfillment (Division 16).

DIVISION 2 (第二)

All beneath heaven knows beauty is beauty only because there is ugliness,
And knows good is good only because there is evil.
Thus, Something and Nothing produce each other.
Difficult and easy complete each other.
Long and short measure one another.
High and low fill one another.
Voices and instruments harmonize with one another.
Front and back follow each other.

Therefore, the shèng rén keeps to the deed that consists of taking wú wèi and practices the teaching that uses no words.
Ten thousands things arise and he does not initiate them.
They come to be and he claims no possession of them.
They go through their processes, and there is no expectation (for reward for the results).
He accomplishes his tasks, but does not dwell on them.
It is only because he does not dwell on them
That they do not leave him.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
The shèng rén (sage) refrains from making judgments using words (see also Division 5). The human mind can comprehend long and short as being the comparison of objects in length. However, the mind cannot comprehend the root aspects of beauty and ugliness, or good and evil. So, once one's mind judges something to be ugly (or evil) then beauty (or good) is defined whether or not others share the same judgments. Ambiguity, inconsistency, and misunderstanding can lead to misjudgment, so all judgments should be distrusted. The Lǎo Zǐ admonishes the shèng rén "to practice the teaching that uses no words" – an approach to learning about a world without beauty, ugliness, goodness, evil, long or short. And, as a further consequence, the shèng rén is also admonished to emulate the wordless way of things in nature in which tasks are accomplished for there own sake, not for rewards.

Beauty and ugliness, and good and evil are judgments. But, can beauty be real if it only exists because of ugliness? And, can goodness be real if it only exists because of evil? We do know this, that things that people regard as beautiful, ugly, good, and evil are replete in nature, yet things in nature are not guided by people's judgments as to their beauty, ugliness, goodness, or evilness. Thus, those words are not relevant to anything but people.

However, it doesn't seem that all opposites are simply judgments created only by the human mind, as some opposites exist apart from human experience:

Something and Nothing. The British philosopher, Alan Watts (1915-1973) said, "You can't have something without nothing"^[1]. Watts observed that physical things must be separated by nothingness otherwise they would not be the distinct things they are. His conclusion that things can't physically exist without the nothingness that separates them enables us to say that nothing exists as we say something exists, which is the basis for the Lǎo Zǐ expression here that "Something and Nothing produce each other".

Long and short. The existence of physical objects means that they have dimensions, so the long and short exist because things can be measured.

The other pairs of opposites are the product of judgments. Tasks are difficult or easy in different ways, say in how long a task takes or how many errors are made while completing it. The combination of voices and instruments may be perceived as pleasant or in discord. What is high and what is low depends on the observer's elevation. The front and back of a physical object depends on the location of the observer.

Overall, understanding of any thing can be wrong because perception is a combination of observation and judgment. Even worse, words (names) are particularly poor for understanding any thing (Division 1). So, the shèng rén distrusts words and practices ways that avoid using them. The practice enables the shèng rén to view everything impartially which he is admonished to do in Division 5.

As for things in nature, they arise, grow, and transform on their own accord without any desire to achieve rewards. In doing so, things in nature appear to accomplish things for their own sake. So, the shèng rén emulates natural things, accomplishing tasks for his own sake, and in doing so, acts without acting (wú wèi).

FOOTNOTES
[1] Alan Watts: An Interactive Experience of the Story and Life Works of Alan Watts". Accessed March 30, 2009. The Watts' lecture is available for viewing on YouTube.

DIVISION 1 (第一)

The Dào that can be spoken of
Is not the Everlasting Dào.
The Name that can be named
Is not the Everlasting name.
The unnamed is the origin to all Heaven and Earth;
The named is the mother of ten thousand things.

Therefore, always be without desire
In order to observe the hidden mystery;
Always be with desire
In order to see the manifestations.
Though the two are the same,
Once they arise they differ in name.
One in the same they are called Xuán.
Xuán within Xuán,
Gateway of all mystery.

COMMENTARY by Koeng S. Wan:
All creation is a mystery. To gain a complete understanding of any part of it, even as it exists right now, is impossible, though one can learn how to observe it more completely by understanding Xuán.

The Lǎo Zǐ starts with a disclaimer – the Dào can't be fully explained to the reader because it is being described with words (names). Words cannot capture the total essence of a thing as the "Everlasting name" for a "Name" cannot be "named". However, this division does not explain what the Dào is. Furthermore, Division 2 identifies other shortcomings of words.

Understanding of any particular thing, including the Dào, originates from a unified mystery of it called Xuán (玄) (translated as "Darkness" or "Dark-Enigma") that has two separate expressions that people cannot perceive simultaneously. One expression, manifestation (jiào 徼), is acquired with desire. The other expression, hidden mystery (miào 妙), is aquired without desire. Complete understanding is attained by acquiring both expressions. The two expressions are so different that we give them different names, though they both originate from the same thing, Xuán. Consequently, understanding of Xuán itself (Xuán within Xuán), is the key to a complete understanding of every thing.

Overall, “The Name that can be named” refers to all words collectively. By asserting that, “The Name that can be named is not the Everlasting name”, the Lǎo Zǐ, in its distrust for language, distinguished itself from both Mohism and Confucianism, schools of thought that competed directly with the Daoism of the Lao Zi^[1].

The “unnamed” that is the origin to all Heaven and Earth is the Dào (Division 42). Dào itself is a term used only as a designation and not a "name" (see Division 25).

The “named” that is the mother of the ten thousand things is Heaven and Earth, mentioned in the previous line.

FOOTNOTES
[1] Hansen, Chad, "Taoism", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (editor), section 4.